The Opportunities for Surrogacy Legalization Between the Right to Have Children and A Loophole of Trafficking

Authors

Wawan Edi Prastiyo
Gde Made Swardhana

Abstract

The phenomenon of producing surrogate mother facilities has been recognized in some countries, although Indonesia indirectly prohibits the practice. The practice is also feared to be a new form of human trafficking. Therefore, this study aims to evaluate the opportunities for surrogacy legalization regarding its perspectives between human rights and the loophole of trafficking. In this study, three problems were formulated: (1) the legal status of children born from a surrogate mother; (2) the legality of a surrogate mother in Indonesian law; and (3) the opportunities for surrogacy legalization in legal reform. This study is a normative juridical study that examines the differences in legal systems in various countries regarding the regulation of surrogacy. The children delivered through surrogacy were the legal offspring of surrogate mothers. They were also likely to have a legal relationship with their biological parents as adopted children. Asides from these legal statuses, Indonesian law did not support the validity of the uterine lease agreement. This was due to its inseparability from the influence of religious and cultural values, which opposed the existence of surrogacy. Women and children have the potential to become victims of exploitation, even though the practice of surrogate motherhood is very harmful to their health. The practice subsequently prioritized the opportunity to become a new form of human trafficking. Various international legal instruments that exist can be used as a reference to prohibit the existence of surrogate mothers.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.22304/pjih.v10n2.a3

Recommended Citation

Prastiyo, Wawan Edi and Swardhana, Gde Made (2023) "The Opportunities for Surrogacy Legalization Between the Right to Have Children and A Loophole of Trafficking," Padjadjaran Jurnal Ilmu Hukum (Journal of Law): Vol. 10: No. 2, Article 5.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.22304/pjih.v10n2.a3
Available at: https://journal.unpad.ac.id/pjih/vol10/iss2/5

References

Books

Ameln, Fred. Capita Selecta Law Health. Cet . I. Jakarta: Graphics Tama Jaya, 1991.

Djumhana, Muhammad. Law in Development Biotechnology. Bandung: Citra Aditya Bakti, 1995.

Erawati, Elly and Herlien Budion. Legal Explanation on Agreement Cancellation. Jakarta: National Legal Reform Program, 2010.

Machmud, Syahrul. Enforcement Law and Protection Law for The Suspected Doctor To Do Medical Malpractice. Bandung: Mandar Forward, 2008.

Mertokusumo, Sudikno. Getting to Know Law. Yogyakarta: Liberty, 1989.

National Rapporteur on Trafficking in Human Beings. Human Trafficking for The Purpose of The Removal of Organs and Forced Commercial Surrogacy. The Hague: BNRM, 2012.

Pande, Amrita. Wombs in Labor Transnational Commercial Surrogacy in India. New York: Columbia University Press, 2014.

Prakoso, Abdul Rahman and Putri Ayu Nurmalinda. Policy Law To Follow Criminal Trafficking in Persons. Semarang: University Semarang State, 2018.

Ratman, Desriza. Legal Series Surrogate Mother's Health in Perspective Ethics and Law: Yes, Rent a Uterus in Indonesia. Jakarta: Gramedia, 2012.

Sjukrie, Erna Sofwan. Institution Appointment Child (Adoption). Jakarta: Court Great, 1992.

Wignjodipoero, Soerojo. Position and Development Law Custom After Independence. Jakarta: Mountain Great, 1982.

___________________. Introduction and Legal Principles Adat. Bandung: Alumni, 1979.

Other Documents

Abdullah, Fatma Mohamed. “Legal and Ethical Aspects Beyond Commercial Surrogacy: Modern Form of Human Trafficking.” Journal of Legal, Ethical, and Regulatory 22, no. 1 (2019): 1-7.

Arikhman, Nova. “Overview Social, Ethical, and Surrogate Mother Law in Indonesia." Jurnal Health Medicine Saintika 7, no. 2 (2016): 140-150. http://dx.doi.org/10.30633/jkms.v7i2.189.

Arvidsson, Anna, Polly Vauquline, Sara Johnsdotte , and Brigitta Essén. “Surrogate Mother–Praiseworthy or Stigmatized: A Qualitative Study on Perceptions of Surrogacy in Assam, India.” Global Health Action 10, no. 1 (2017): 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1080/16549716.2017.1328890.

Astuti, Nanin Koeswidi. "Analysis Juridical About Agreement Declared Cancel for the Sake of Law.” Journal Law To-ra 2, no. 1 (2016): 279-286. https://doi.org/10.33541/tora.v2i1.1130.

Chatterjee, Pyali. “Human Trafficking and Commercialization of Surrogacy in India.” European Researcher 85, no. 10-2 (2014): 1835-1842. https://doi.org/10.13187/er.2014.85.1835.

Detik Health. “Sewa Rahim di Indonesia Dilakukan Diam-diam.” Accessed on October 18, 2022. https://health.detik.com/ibu-dan-anak/d-1370505/sewa-rahim-di-indonesia-dilakukan-diam-diam.

Dushina, A. D., (et.al). "The Legitimation of Commercial Surrogacy in Russia." Russian Social Science Review 59, no. 2 (2018): 789-815. https://doi.org/10.1080/10609393.2017.1353835.

European Court of Human Rights Cout Europeenne des Droits de L’Homme. “Questions and Answers on the Paradiso and Campanelli v. Italy Judgment.” Accessed on August 18, 2022. https://www.echr.coe.int/Documents/Press_Q_A_Paradiso_and_Campanelli_ENG.pdf.

Greater Hattiesburg Civic Awareness Group, Task Force on Sheltered Programs (nd.), “Fund-Raising Efforts.” Accessed on November 10, 2001. http://www.hattiesburgcag.org.

Halimah, Anis Nur, Sri Winarni, and Dharminto Dharmanto. "Exposure Cigarettes, Nutritional Status, Workload and Reproductive Organ Infection on Woman with Problem Fertility RSI Sultan Agung Semarang.” Jurnal Health Society (e-Journal) 6, no. 5 (2018): 202-208. https://doi.org/10.14710/jkm.v6i5.22009.

Halimah, Mimi. "Views Axiology Against Surrogate Mother." Journal Indonesian Philosophy 1, no. 2 (2018): 51-56. https://doi.org/10.23887/jfi.v1i2.13989.

Jauhari, Iman. "Comparison of Child Protection Law Between Indonesia and Malaysia." Indonesian J. Int'l L. 12, no. 1 (2014): 84-106. https://doi.org/10.17304/ijil.vol12.1.593.

JE, Azpiroz Villar. “Some Considerations About the Contract of Surrogate Mother in View of the Spanish Legislation on Adoption.” Cuadernos de Bioetica: Revista Oficial de la Asociacion Espanola de Bioetica y Etica Medica 30, no. 99 (2019): 187-198. https://doi.org/10.30444/cb.32.

Khvorostyanov, Natalia and Daphna Yeshua-Katz. “Bad, Pathetic, and Greedy Women: Expressions of Surrogate Motherhood Stigma in a Russian Online Forum.” Sex Roles 83, no. 7 (2020): 474-484. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-020-01119-z.

Kijewski. Leonie “UN Reiterates Call to Abolish Criminalization of Surrogates.” Accessed on May 12, 2023. https://www.voanews.com/a/east-asia-pacific_un-reiterates-call-abolish-criminalization-surrogates/6179318.html.

Ottisova, Livia (et.al.) "Psychological Consequences of Child Trafficking: An Historical Cohort Study of Trafficked Children in Contact with Secondary Mental Health Services." PLoS One 13, no. 3 (2018): 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0192321.

Rotabi, K. Smith and Nicole Footen Bromfield. “The Decline in Intercountry Adoptions and New Practices of Global Surrogacy: Global Exploitation and Human Rights Concerns.” Affilia 27, no. 2 (2012): 129-141. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886109912444102.

Selian, Muhammad Ali Hanafiah. “Surrogate Mother; Overview Law Civil and Islamic Law." Journal Juridical 4, no. 2 (2017): 131-147. http://dx.doi.org/10.35586/.v4i2.255.

Siller, Nicole, and Kathryn E. Van Doore. "Establishing the Constituent Elements of Trafficking in Persons: Conceptualizing ‘Transnationality’ and ‘Involvement by an Organized Criminal Group’." The Palgrave International Handbook of Human Trafficking 1, no. 1 (2020): 271-283. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-63058-8_12.

Tandirerung, Dewi Astika. “Analysis Agreement Innominate to Surrogate Mother in Indonesia.” Amanna Gappa 26, no. 1 (2018): 12-22. https://doi.org/10.20956/ag.v26i1.6335.

Torres, Gloria, Anne Shapiro, and Tim K. Mackey. "A Review of Surrogate Motherhood Regulation in South American Countries: Pointing to a Need for an International Legal Framework." BMC Pregnancy and Child Birth 19, no. 1 (2019): 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-019-2182-1.

Urda, Margarita. "Surrogacy and Human Trafficking: The Boundaries of What is Permitted," SSRN 4245750 (2022):1-4.

Wade, Katherine. “The Regulation of Surrogacy: A Children's Rights Perspective.” Child and Family Law Quarterly 29, no. 2 (2017): 113-131.

World Health Organization. “Global Prevalence of Infertility, Infecundity, and Childlessness.” Accessed on September 14, 2020. https ://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/topics/infertility/burden/en/.

Wulandari, Risa Jaya and I Nyoman Darmadha. “Legal Qonsequences Surrogate Mother Review from Law Criminal." Kertha Speech: Journal of Science Law 9, no. 1 (2019): 1-14.

Zainuddin, Nur Alimah, Ilham Abbas, and Zainuddin Zainuddin. "Implementation Appointment Child and Consequence the Law Based on Determination of Judges.” Journal of Lex Generalis (JLG) 1, no. 7 (2020): 959-974. https://doi.org/10.52103/jlg.v1i7.27.

Legal Documents

The Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia of 1945 [Undang-Undang Dasar Republik Indonesia 1945].

Indonesian Civil Code [Kitab Undang-Undang Hukum Pidana].

Law of the Republic of Indonesia Number 1 of 1974 on Marriage [Undang-Undang Nomor 1 Tahun 1974 Tentang Perkawinan].

Law of the Republic of Indonesia Number 39 of 1999 on Human Rights [Undang-Undang Nomor 39 Tahun 1999 Tentang Hak Asasi Manusia].

Law of the Republic of Indonesia Number 21 of 2007 on Eradication of the Crime of Trafficking in Persons [Undang-Undang Nomor 21 Tahun 2007 Tentang Pemberantasan Tindak Pidana Perdagangan Orang].

Law of the Republic of Indonesia Number 36 of 2009 on Health [Undang-Undang Nomor 36 Tahun 2009 Tentang Kesehatan].

Law of the Republic of Indonesia Number 35 of 2014 on Amendments to the Law Number 23 of 2002 on Child Protection [Undang-Undang Nomor 35 Tahun 2014 Tentang Perubahan Atas Undang-Undang Nomor 23 Tahun 2002 Tentang Perlindungan Anak].

Government Regulation of the Republic of Indonesia Number 61 of 2014 On Reproductive Health [Peraturan Pemerintah Republik Indonesia Nomor 61 Tahun 2014 Tentang Kesehatan Reproduksi].

The International Conference on Population and Development Held in Cairo (ICPD) in 1994 [Konferensi Internasional Mengenai Populasi dan Pembangunan].

The Spanish Civil Code and the European Convention [Hukum Spanyol dan Konvensi Eropa].

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights [Deklarasi Universal Hak Asasi Manusia].

The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination [Konvensi Penghapusan Segala Bentuk Diskriminasi].

The Convention on the Rights of the Child, adopted 20 November 1989 by General Assembly resolution 44/25 [Konvensi Hak Anak, diadopsi 20 November 1989 oleh Resolusi Majelis Umum 44/25].

The United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime, Adopted by General Assembly Resolution 55/25 of 15 November 2000 [Konvensi Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa Menentang Kejahatan Transnasional Terorganisir, diadopsi oleh Resolusi Majelis Umum 55/25 Tanggal 15 November 2000].

International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. [Konvensi Internasional Tentang Ekonomi, Sosial, dan Hak Budaya].

The United Nations General Assembly on Sale and Sexual Exploitation of Children, Including Child Prostitution, Child Pornography and Other Child Sexual Abuse Material A/74/162). [Majelis Umum PBB Tentang Penjualan dan Eksplotasi Seksual Anak, Termasuk Prostitusi Anak, Pornografi Anak, dan Materi Pelecehan Seksual Pada Anak Lainnya A/74/162].

Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons Especially Women and Children, Supplementing the United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime; Adopted and Opened for Signature, Ratification and Accession by General Assembly Resolution 55/25 of 15 November 2000 [Protokol untuk Mencegah, Menekan, dan Menghukum Perdagangan Manusia Khususnya Perempuan dan Anak-anak, Melengkapi Konvensi Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa Menentang Kejahatan Transnasional Terorganisir diadopsi dan dibuka untuk penandatanganan, ratifikasi, dan aksesi oleh Resolusi Majelis Umum 55/25 Tanggal 15 November 2000].

European Center for Law and Justice in 2012 [Pusat Hukum dan Keadilan Eropa Pada Tahun 2012].

Draft Law of the Republic of Indonesia on Family Resilience [Rancangan Undang-Undang Republik Indonesia Tentang Ketahanan Keluarga].

DOI

https://doi.org/10.22304/pjih.v10n2.a3